THE RISE OF ARABIC MEDICAL LITERATURE:
Prolific Writers: An Introduction
Among great creative thinkers, who produced works of ingenuity, only a few can briefly be introduced here. 'Ali-ibn-Sahl Rabban at-Tabari, born around 810 C.E. in 'Merve in Iran, deserves special mention for his famous Kitab Firdaws al-Hikma' (The Paradise of Wisdom), which is one of the first compendia of medicine written in Arabic. It was completed in 850 C.E. Western scholars (The Orientalists) regard the work as a free adaptation of a Syriac translation largely based on Greek sources, such as, on Hippocrates (Buqrat), Galen (Jalinus), Aristotle, Dioscurides and others. They regard it as an intermingling of rational and magical observations of nature. The systems of Indian and Persian medicines, according to them, were also included in the work, probably through Arabic translations of the works of Caraka, Susruta, Vaghhala and Madha Vakara. Abu-Zakariyya' Yuhanna b. Masawaih (777-857 C.E.), personal physician of Mamun and other 'Abbasid Caliphs at Baghdad and Samarra, wrote an exhaustive book on general pathology, the 'Kitab al-Kamal wat-Tamam', in addition to many monographs on pathological and physiological problems. His competence can be adjudged through his pupils among whom was the famous Hunain b. Ishaq al-Ibadi (d.873 or 877) who translated Greek works. He also wrote many medical monographs of his own. His 'Kitab al-Mudkhal fit-Tibb', is an introductory manual on medicine, presented in dialectic form, including pharmaceutics and cystoscopy. The materials beyond Galen or Alexandrian medicine were systematized and schematized by him. His 'Kitab al-'Ashr Maqalat fi'l 'Ayn', on ophthalmology, completed during the course of thirty years, formed the starting point for the specialized ophthalmological literature written in Arabic. His 'Qawl fi-Hifz al-Asnan was-Tislahiha' is regarded as the first comprehensive book on dentistry. Similarly, his large book on diet, the 'Kitab al-Aghdhiya' in three parts, namely i) on foodstuffs, ii) on food derived from seeds and fruit and iii) from plants and animals, is a unique contribution to the field of dietetics (al-Aghdhiya')
Qusta ibn-Luqa al-Ba'labakki (born about 820 C.E., basically a scholar of mathematics and philosophy), translated numerous Greek books in Arabic. Numerous stimulating works on medical science were also composed by him with special reference to physiological and psychological problems, which examined the relations, which existed between constitution and character or conduct of life, that is, the emotion and aesthetic perceptions. Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn-Zakariyya' ar-Razi (865-923) needs no introduction. According to August Muler he was 'the most creative genius of medieval medicine' and Von Grunebaum highly evaluated 'the sureness of his diagnosis and the cool precision of his case histories'. He was both a great philosopher and a medical doctor and chemist. He served as the director of hospitals in-Rayy, Iran and at Baghdad respectively. His book 'Kitab al-Mansuri' (dedicated to the Samanid prince) is one of the classical works on Arabic medicine. Of its ten parts 'Liber Nous' was well known in the West. Ar-Razi has dealt with special pathology in his book. His 'Kitab al-Hawi (Continens) dealing with pathology and therapy, was published after his death by Ibn-al-'Amid, the Vizier of Buwaihid, Rukn ad-Dawla, in twenty-three volumes. It influenced the course of future Arabic medical literature and was translated into Latin by Farj b. Salim and long served as a teaching manual in various faculties in Europe.
'Ali ibn-al-'Abbas al-Majusi, a Persian Zoroastrian from al-Ahwaz, and a doctor to the Buwaihid prince, wrote his famous book 'Kitab Kamil as Sina a at Tibbiya (also known as al-Kitab al-Malaki). It is amongst the best of classical works on Islamic medicine, becoming as famous as that of Ibn-Sina's Canon through the Middle Ages till the Modern times. No magical or astrological ideas are found in it. Ali died between 982 and 995 C.E. The Cordovan doctor Abu-'lQasim Khalaf ibn-al-'Abbas az-Zahrawi, serving during the reign of 'Abd-ar-Rahman III, wrote his remarkable book the 'Kitab at-Tasrif. He raised the standard of surgery to scientific levels. It remained no longer in the hands of barbers or cuppers as in the rest of Europe. The thirteen parts of the book, dealing with surgery, were acknowledged, to the extent that the surgical works of Roger of Parma, Lanfranchi, Guilielmo, Salicetti and Fabrizio d' Acquapendents were immensely influenced by his work. It is often quoted in the Chiruogia Magna of Gay de Chauliac', completed in 1363, and exercised its influence right into the eighteenth century.
Abu-'Ali al-Husain ibn-'Abd-Allah ibn-Sina (d.1037) is another creative genius who was born in Afshana near Bukhari in 980 C.E. Being a scholar of the Qur'an, Islamic law, logic, metaphysics, mathematics and astronomy, he studied medicine from a definitive angle. He started medical practice at the age of sixteen and treated the ruler of Bukhara Nuh b. Mansur. It was in Jurjan where he wrote his magnum opus, the 'Kitab al-Qanun, which is gigantic work consisting of five books. The first book deals with physiology, while in the second the author presents examples from the three realms of nature. The third book is devoted to special pathology. A variety of diseases are enumerated in the fourth book and pharmacy is the subject of the fifth. The Qanun has won the highest esteem both in the East and the West. Its massive manuscripts, commentaries, and super commentaries are still preserved. Its Latin translation appeared about a hundred years after his death. Gerard of Cremona in Toledo translated it into Latin, which was printed thirty six times in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries a feat rarely achieved even by modern medical textbooks! It is a systematization and a comprehensive presentation of the medical science of the time.
Abu-Marwan 'Abd al-Malik ibn-Zuhr, who was born in Seville in 1091 or 1094, wrote the 'Kitab al-Iqtisad' which was a bibliography. But his main work is 'Kitab al-Taisir' which is on pathology along with a collection of prescriptions. It contains the particularia of medicine. The Taisir established his reputation in Europe. It was translated into Hebrew and Latin and went through eight editions in Latin between 1490 and 1554. He died in 1161-2.
Abu-l Walid Muhammad ibn-Ahmad ibn-Rushd (d.1198) (Latin Averroes) was born in Cordova in 1126. Despite his main achievements in Islamic Jurisprudence and Aristotelian philosophy, he took a special interest in medicine. His main medical work the 'Kitab al-Kulliyat' (Latin Colliget) deals with anatomy, dietetics, pathology, symptomatology, nourishment, malaria medica, hygiene and therapeutics. Like ar-Razi and Ibn-Sina he made significant contributions to the science of Arabic medicine.
Ibn-Maimun (Latin Maimonides), personal physician of Salah ad-Din's son al-Malik al-Afda Nur ad-Din, was born in Cordova in 1135 C.E. and later migrated to Egypt. He wrote the 'Kitab al-Fusul' in which 1500 quotations from Galen were collected together with quotations from Arab writers. He collected the synonyms of drugs and commented on poisons. Muwaffaq ad-Din 'Abd-al-Latifibn-Yusufal-Baghdadi, born in Baghdad (in 1162 C.E.), taught medicine from 1207 in Damascus. Being a scholar of independent thought, he always strove to reach the truth and finally discovered the unity of lower maxilla which was thought to be composed of 2 parts. His books on Diabetes are extremely valuable. He died in Baghdad in 1231 C.E. 'Ala ad-Din 'Ali ibn-Abi' Hazm al-Quraishi, known as Ibn-an-Nafis, (d.1288) another great teacher of medicine in Baghdad, wrote an epitome of the 'Canon' of Ibn-Sina. He wrote a treatise entitled 'Fadil ibn-Natiq' in addition to commentaries on several Hippocratic writings, which became extremely popular. He also wrote a large commentary on the 'Canon' in which he developed his own theory of the pulmonary circulation. Diya' ad-Din 'Abd-Allah ibn-Ahmad ibn-al-Baitar (d.1248) was born in Malaga tothe end of the twelfth century. After having traveled over Muslim World he finally settled in Egypt and was bestowed the title of 'King of Botanists'. He died in Damascus. Out of his several works on materia medica the 'Kitab al-Jami' li Mufradat al-Adwiya wal-Aghdhiy', is a comprehensive work on remedies and food. It is a compilation of more than two hundred different sources, including the text of Dioscurides.
The Arabic medical literature, produced by prolific writers, thus rose to great heights. The names mentioned here are only few amongst the dozens of writers of the Middle Ages.
Manfred Ullmann has depicted the Arab researchers merely as imitators or borrowers of Greek thought on medicine. But despite his negative attitude he was obliged to acknowledged that:
'It should not of course be assumed that at that time European medicine was theoretically superior to Arabic medicine. The Arabic traditions still dominated medicine in Europe as is seen from the numerous editions of Ibn-Sina, produced in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The influence of Europe on Islamic medicine makes itself emphatically felt in the seventeenth century when Ibn-Sullum, the physician to the Ottoman Sultan Mehmet IV, wrote his 'The lnf1uence of Arabic Medicine on the West'.
It is well known that a number of Arabic books written on medical sciences were translated into Latin, as will be discussed later. Constantinus Africanus (d.1087) translated the most important of Arabic medical works, which were written until the middle of the eleventh century. But they were mostly 'circulated under his own name as if he, not an Arab, was the author'. He was born in Tunis but settled in Italy as a convert to Christianity and spent his life as a monk in the church, translating the Arabic books which he had brought with him from Tunis.
Toledo, won back by the Christians in 1085 became the centre of translation of the Arabic scientific works into Latin. The town 'soon became the centre where Arabic learning was passed on to the West'. Raymond of Sauvetat who became archbishop of Toledo in 1125 was instrumental in this process. Latin translations of the eleventh and the twelfth centuries 'laid the foundation of' Arabism' in the medicine of the West, a trend which was dominant for centuries, and was reversed only in modern times and after long argument. For long the rule held that 'he who would be a good doctor must be a good Avicecennist'.